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# Prokaryotic Diversity ## Gram-Positive Bacteria ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the unique features of each category of high G+C and low G+C gram-positive bacteria 2. Identify similarities and differences between high G+C and low G+C bacterial groups 3. Give an...
# Prokaryotic Diversity ## Deeply Branching Bacteria ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the unique features of deeply branching bacteria 2. Give examples of significant deeply branching bacteria On a phylogenetic tree (see A Systematic Approach), the trunk or root o...
# Prokaryotic Diversity ## Archaea ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the unique features of each category of Archaea 2. Explain why archaea might not be associated with human microbiomes or pathology 3. Give common examples of archaea commonly associated with uniqu...
# The Eukaryotes of Microbiology ## Introduction Although bacteria and viruses account for a large number of the infectious diseases that afflict humans, many serious illnesses are caused by eukaryotic organisms. One example is malaria, which is caused by , a eukaryotic organism transmitted through mosquito bites. Ma...
# The Eukaryotes of Microbiology ## Unicellular Eukaryotic Parasites ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Summarize the general characteristics of unicellular eukaryotic parasites 2. Describe the general life cycles and modes of reproduction in unicellular eukaryotic parasites...
# The Eukaryotes of Microbiology ## Parasitic Helminths ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain why we include the study of parasitic worms within the discipline of microbiology 2. Compare the basic morphology of the major groups of parasitic helminthes 3. Describe the ch...
# The Eukaryotes of Microbiology ## Fungi ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain why the study of fungi such as yeast and molds is within the discipline of microbiology 2. Describe the unique characteristics of fungi 3. Describe examples of asexual and sexual reproductio...
# The Eukaryotes of Microbiology ## Algae ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain why algae are included within the discipline of microbiology 2. Describe the unique characteristics of algae 3. Identify examples of toxin-producing algae 4. Compare the major groups of alga...
# The Eukaryotes of Microbiology ## Lichens ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain why lichens are included in the study of microbiology 2. Describe the unique characteristics of a lichen and the role of each partner in the symbiotic relationship of a lichen 3. Describe ...
# Acellular Pathogens ## Introduction Public health measures in the developed world have dramatically reduced mortality from viral epidemics. But when epidemics do occur, they can spread quickly with global air travel. In 2009, an outbreak of H1N1 influenza spread across various continents. In early 2014, cases of Eb...
# Acellular Pathogens ## Viruses ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the general characteristics of viruses as pathogens 2. Describe viral genomes 3. Describe the general characteristics of viral life cycles 4. Differentiate among bacteriophages, plant viruses, and a...
# Acellular Pathogens ## The Viral Life Cycle ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the lytic and lysogenic life cycles 2. Describe the replication process of animal viruses 3. Describe unique characteristics of retroviruses and latent viruses 4. Discuss human viruses ...
# Acellular Pathogens ## Isolation, Culture, and Identification of Viruses ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Discuss why viruses were originally described as filterable agents 2. Describe the cultivation of viruses and specimen collection and handling 3. Compare in vivo and...
# Acellular Pathogens ## Viroids, Virusoids, and Prions ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe viroids and their unique characteristics 2. Describe virusoids and their unique characteristics 3. Describe prions and their unique characteristics Research attempts to discov...
# Microbial Biochemistry ## Introduction The earth is estimated to be 4.6 billion years old, but for the first 2 billion years, the atmosphere lacked oxygen, without which the earth could not support life as we know it. One hypothesis about how life emerged on earth involves the concept of a “primordial soup.” This i...
# Microbial Biochemistry ## Organic Molecules ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify common elements and structures found in organic molecules 2. Explain the concept of isomerism 3. Identify examples of functional groups 4. Describe the role of functional groups in synt...
# Microbial Biochemistry ## Carbohydrates ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Give examples of monosaccharides and polysaccharides 2. Describe the function of monosaccharides and polysaccharides within a cell The most abundant biomolecules on earth are carbohydrates. From a c...
# Microbial Biochemistry ## Lipids ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the chemical composition of lipids 2. Describe the unique characteristics and diverse structures of lipids 3. Compare and contrast triacylglycerides (triglycerides) and phospholipids. 4. Describe ...
# Microbial Biochemistry ## Proteins ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the fundamental structure of an amino acid 2. Describe the chemical structures of proteins 3. Summarize the unique characteristics of proteins At the beginning of this chapter, a famous experime...
# Microbial Biochemistry ## Using Biochemistry to Identify Microorganisms ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe examples of biosynthesis products within a cell that can be detected to identify bacteria Accurate identification of bacterial isolates is essential in a cli...
# Microbial Metabolism ## Introduction Throughout earth’s history, microbial metabolism has been a driving force behind the development and maintenance of the planet’s biosphere. Eukaryotic organisms such as plants and animals typically depend on organic molecules for energy, growth, and reproduction. Prokaryotes, on...
# Microbial Metabolism ## Energy, Matter, and Enzymes ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Define and describe metabolism 2. Compare and contrast autotrophs and heterotrophs 3. Describe the importance of oxidation-reduction reactions in metabolism 4. Describe why ATP, FAD, NAD...
# Microbial Metabolism ## Catabolism of Carbohydrates ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe why glycolysis is not oxygen dependent 2. Define and describe the net yield of three-carbon molecules, ATP, and NADH from glycolysis 3. Explain how three-carbon pyruvate molecul...
# Microbial Metabolism ## Cellular Respiration ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare and contrast the electron transport system location and function in a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell 2. Compare and contrast the differences between substrate-level and oxidativ...
# Microbial Metabolism ## Fermentation ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Define fermentation and explain why it does not require oxygen 2. Describe the fermentation pathways and their end products and give examples of microorganisms that use these pathways 3. Compare and co...
# Microbial Metabolism ## Catabolism of Lipids and Proteins ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe how lipids are catabolized 2. Describe how lipid catabolism can be used to identify microbes 3. Describe how proteins are catabolized 4. Describe how protein catabolism ca...
# Microbial Metabolism ## Photosynthesis ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the function and locations of photosynthetic pigments in eukaryotes and prokaryotes 2. Describe the major products of the light-dependent and light-independent reactions 3. Describe the reac...
# Microbial Metabolism ## Biogeochemical Cycles ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Define and describe the importance of microorganisms in the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur 2. Define and give an example of bioremediation Energy flows directionally thr...
# Microbial Growth ## Introduction We are all familiar with the slimy layer on a pond surface or that makes rocks slippery. These are examples of biofilms—microorganisms embedded in thin layers of matrix material (). Biofilms were long considered random assemblages of cells and had little attention from researchers. ...
# Microbial Growth ## How Microbes Grow ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Define the generation time for growth based on binary fission 2. Identify and describe the activities of microorganisms undergoing typical phases of binary fission (simple cell division) in a growth c...
# Microbial Growth ## Oxygen Requirements for Microbial Growth ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Interpret visual data demonstrating minimum, optimum, and maximum oxygen or carbon dioxide requirements for growth 2. Identify and describe different categories of microbes with...
# Microbial Growth ## The Effects of pH on Microbial Growth ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Illustrate and briefly describe minimum, optimum, and maximum pH requirements for growth 2. Identify and describe the different categories of microbes with pH requirements for grow...
# Microbial Growth ## Temperature and Microbial Growth ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Illustrate and briefly describe minimum, optimum, and maximum temperature requirements for growth 2. Identify and describe different categories of microbes with temperature requirements...
# Microbial Growth ## Other Environmental Conditions that Affect Growth ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify and describe different categories of microbes with specific growth requirements other than oxygen, pH, and temperature, such as altered barometric pressure, os...
# Microbial Growth ## Media Used for Bacterial Growth ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify and describe culture media for the growth of bacteria, including examples of all-purpose media, enriched, selective, differential, defined, and enrichment media The study of mic...
# Biochemistry of the Genome ## Introduction Children inherit some characteristics from each parent. Siblings typically look similar to each other, but not exactly the same—except in the case of identical twins. How can we explain these phenomena? The answers lie in heredity (the transmission of traits from one gener...
# Biochemistry of the Genome ## Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the discovery of nucleic acid and nucleotides 2. Explain the historical experiments that led to the characterization of DNA 3. Describe how microbio...
# Biochemistry of the Genome ## Structure and Function of DNA ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the biochemical structure of deoxyribonucleotides 2. Identify the base pairs used in the synthesis of deoxyribonucleotides 3. Explain why the double helix of DNA is desc...
# Biochemistry of the Genome ## Structure and Function of RNA ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the biochemical structure of ribonucleotides 2. Describe the similarities and differences between RNA and DNA 3. Describe the functions of the three main types of RNA us...
# Biochemistry of the Genome ## Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Define gene and genotype and differentiate genotype from phenotype 2. Describe chromosome structure and packaging 3. Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes 4...
# Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics ## Introduction In 1954, French scientist and future Nobel laureate Jacques Monod (1910–1976) famously said, “What is true in E. coli is true in the elephant,” suggesting that the biochemistry of life was maintained throughout evolution and is shared in all forms of known life. Sinc...
# Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics ## The Functions of Genetic Material ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain the two functions of the genome 2. Explain the meaning of the central dogma of molecular biology 3. Differentiate between genotype and phenotype and explain how...
# Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics ## DNA Replication ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain the meaning of semiconservative DNA replication 2. Explain why DNA replication is bidirectional and includes both a leading and lagging strand 3. Explain why Okazaki fragments ar...
# Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics ## RNA Transcription ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain how RNA is synthesized using DNA as a template 2. Distinguish between transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes During the process of transcription, the information encoded w...
# Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics ## Protein Synthesis (Translation) ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the genetic code and explain why it is considered almost universal 2. Explain the process of translation and the functions of the molecular machinery of translat...
# Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics ## Mutations ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare point mutations and frameshift mutations 2. Describe the differences between missense, nonsense, and silent mutations 3. Describe the differences between light and dark repair 4. Expla...
# Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics ## How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare the processes of transformation, transduction, and conjugation 2. Explain how asexual gene transfer results in prokaryotic genetic diversity 3. ...
# Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics ## Gene Regulation: Operon Theory ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare inducible operons and repressible operons 2. Describe why regulation of operons is important Each nucleated cell in a multicellular organism contains copies of the...
# Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics ## Introduction Watson and Crick’s identification of the structure of DNA in 1953 was the seminal event in the field of genetic engineering. Since the 1970s, there has been a veritable explosion in scientists’ ability to manipulate DNA in ways that have revolutionized the f...
# Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics ## Microbes and the Tools of Genetic Engineering ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify tools of molecular genetics that are derived from microorganisms 2. Describe the methods used to create recombinant DNA molecules 3. Descr...
# Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics ## Visualizing and Characterizing DNA, RNA, and Protein ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain the use of nucleic acid probes to visualize specific DNA sequences 2. Explain the use of gel electrophoresis to separate DNA fragmen...
# Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics ## Whole Genome Methods and Pharmaceutical Applications of Genetic Engineering ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain the uses of genome-wide comparative analyses 2. Summarize the advantages of genetically engineered pharmaceut...
# Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics ## Gene Therapy ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Summarize the mechanisms, risks, and potential benefits of gene therapy 2. Identify ethical issues involving gene therapy and the regulatory agencies that provide oversight for cli...
# Control of Microbial Growth ## Introduction How clean is clean? People wash their cars and vacuum the carpets, but most would not want to eat from these surfaces. Similarly, we might eat with silverware cleaned in a dishwasher, but we could not use the same dishwasher to clean surgical instruments. As these example...
# Control of Microbial Growth ## Controlling Microbial Growth ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare disinfectants, antiseptics, and sterilants 2. Describe the principles of controlling the presence of microorganisms through sterilization and disinfection 3. Differentiat...
# Control of Microbial Growth ## Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Understand and compare various physical methods of controlling microbial growth, including heating, refrigeration, freezing, high-pressure treatment, desiccat...
# Control of Microbial Growth ## Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Understand and compare various chemicals used to control microbial growth, including their uses, advantages and disadvantages, chemical structure, and mode of action...
# Control of Microbial Growth ## Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe why the phenol coefficient is used 2. Compare and contrast the disk-diffusion, use-dilution, and in-use methods for testing the effectivene...
# Antimicrobial Drugs ## Introduction In nature, some microbes produce substances that inhibit or kill other microbes that might otherwise compete for the same resources. Humans have successfully exploited these abilities, using microbes to mass-produce substances that can be used as antimicrobial drugs. Since their ...
# Antimicrobial Drugs ## History of Chemotherapy and Antimicrobial Discovery ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare and contrast natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic antimicrobial drugs 2. Describe the chemotherapeutic approaches of ancient societies 3. Describe the his...
# Antimicrobial Drugs ## Fundamentals of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Contrast bacteriostatic versus bactericidal antibacterial activities 2. Contrast broad-spectrum drugs versus narrow-spectrum drugs 3. Explain the significance of superinfec...
# Antimicrobial Drugs ## Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs ### Learning Objective 1. Describe the mechanisms of action associated with drugs that inhibit cell wall biosynthesis, protein synthesis, membrane function, nucleic acid synthesis, and metabolic pathways An important quality for an antimicrobial drug is sel...
# Antimicrobial Drugs ## Mechanisms of Other Antimicrobial Drugs ### Learning Objective 1. Explain the differences between modes of action of drugs that target fungi, protozoa, helminths, and viruses Because fungi, protozoa, and helminths are eukaryotic, their cells are very similar to human cells, making it more d...
# Antimicrobial Drugs ## Drug Resistance ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain the concept of drug resistance 2. Describe how microorganisms develop or acquire drug resistance 3. Describe the different mechanisms of antimicrobial drug resistance Antimicrobial resistance...
# Antimicrobial Drugs ## Testing the Effectiveness of Antimicrobials ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe how the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion test determines the susceptibility of a microbe to an antibacterial drug. 2. Explain the significance of the minimal inhibitory...
# Antimicrobial Drugs ## Current Strategies for Antimicrobial Discovery ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the methods and strategies used for discovery of new antimicrobial agents. With the continued evolution and spread of antimicrobial resistance, and now the ide...
# Microbial Mechanisms of Pathogenicity ## Introduction Jane woke up one spring morning feeling not quite herself. Her throat felt a bit dry and she was sniffling. She wondered why she felt so lousy. Was it because of a change in the weather? The pollen count? Was she coming down with something? Did she catch a bug f...
# Microbial Mechanisms of Pathogenicity ## Characteristics of Infectious Disease ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Distinguish between signs and symptoms of disease 2. Explain the difference between a communicable disease and a noncommunicable disease 3. Compare different t...
# Microbial Mechanisms of Pathogenicity ## How Pathogens Cause Disease ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Summarize Koch’s postulates and molecular Koch’s postulates, respectively, and explain their significance and limitations 2. Explain the concept of pathogenicity (virule...
# Microbial Mechanisms of Pathogenicity ## Virulence Factors of Bacterial and Viral Pathogens ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain how virulence factors contribute to signs and symptoms of infectious disease 2. Differentiate between endotoxins and exotoxins 3. Describe...
# Microbial Mechanisms of Pathogenicity ## Virulence Factors of Eukaryotic Pathogens ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe virulence factors unique to fungi and parasites 2. Compare virulence factors of fungi and bacteria 3. Explain the difference between protozoan par...
# Disease and Epidemiology ## Introduction In the United States and other developed nations, public health is a key function of government. A healthy citizenry is more productive, content, and prosperous; high rates of death and disease, on the other hand, can severely hamper economic productivity and foster social a...
# Disease and Epidemiology ## The Language of Epidemiologists ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain the difference between prevalence and incidence of disease 2. Distinguish the characteristics of sporadic, endemic, epidemic, and pandemic diseases 3. Explain the use of ...
# Disease and Epidemiology ## Tracking Infectious Diseases ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain the research approaches used by the pioneers of epidemiology 2. Explain how descriptive, analytical, and experimental epidemiological studies go about determining the cause ...
# Disease and Epidemiology ## Modes of Disease Transmission ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the different types of disease reservoirs 2. Compare contact, vector, and vehicle modes of transmission 3. Identify important disease vectors 4. Explain the prevalence of ...
# Disease and Epidemiology ## Global Public Health ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the entities involved in international public health and their activities 2. Identify and differentiate between emerging and reemerging infectious diseases A large number of intern...
# Innate Nonspecific Host Defenses ## Introduction Despite relatively constant exposure to pathogenic microbes in the environment, humans do not generally suffer from constant infection or disease. Under most circumstances, the body is able to defend itself from the threat of infection thanks to a complex immune syst...
# Innate Nonspecific Host Defenses ## Physical Defenses ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the various physical barriers and mechanical defenses that protect the human body against infection and disease 2. Describe the role of microbiota as a first-line defense agai...
# Innate Nonspecific Host Defenses ## Chemical Defenses ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe how enzymes in body fluids provide protection against infection or disease 2. List and describe the function of antimicrobial peptides, complement components, cytokines, and a...
# Innate Nonspecific Host Defenses ## Cellular Defenses ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify and describe the components of blood 2. Explain the process by which the formed elements of blood are formed (hematopoiesis) 3. Describe the characteristics of formed elements...
# Innate Nonspecific Host Defenses ## Pathogen Recognition and Phagocytosis ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain how leukocytes migrate from peripheral blood into infected tissues 2. Explain the mechanisms by which leukocytes recognize pathogens 3. Explain the process ...
# Innate Nonspecific Host Defenses ## Inflammation and Fever ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the signs of inflammation and fever and explain why they occur 2. Explain the advantages and risks posed by inflammatory responses The inflammatory response, or inflammat...
# Adaptive Specific Host Defenses ## Introduction People living in developed nations and born in the 1960s or later may have difficulty understanding the once heavy burden of devastating infectious diseases. For example, smallpox, a deadly viral disease, once destroyed entire civilizations but has since been eradicat...
# Adaptive Specific Host Defenses ## Overview of Specific Adaptive Immunity ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Define memory, primary response, secondary response, and specificity 2. Distinguish between humoral and cellular immunity 3. Differentiate between antigens, epitope...
# Adaptive Specific Host Defenses ## Major Histocompatibility Complexes and Antigen-Presenting Cells ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify cells that express MHC I and/or MHC II molecules and describe the structures and cellular location of MHC I and MHC II molecules 2...
# Adaptive Specific Host Defenses ## T Lymphocytes and Cellular Immunity ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the process of T-cell maturation and thymic selection 2. Explain the genetic events that lead to diversity of T-cell receptors 3. Compare and contrast the var...
# Adaptive Specific Host Defenses ## B Lymphocytes and Humoral Immunity ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the production and maturation of B cells 2. Compare the structure of B-cell receptors and T-cell receptors 3. Compare T-dependent and T-independent activation ...
# Adaptive Specific Host Defenses ## Vaccines ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare the various kinds of artificial immunity 2. Differentiate between variolation and vaccination 3. Describe different types of vaccines and explain their respective advantages and disadvan...
# Diseases of the Immune System ## Introduction An allergic reaction is an immune response to a type of antigen called an allergen. Allergens can be found in many different items, from peanuts and insect stings to latex and some drugs. Unlike other kinds of antigens, allergens are not necessarily associated with path...
# Diseases of the Immune System ## Hypersensitivities ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify and compare the distinguishing characteristics, mechanisms, and major examples of type I, II, III, and IV hypersensitivities In Adaptive Specific Host Defenses, we discussed the...
# Diseases of the Immune System ## Autoimmune Disorders ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain why autoimmune disorders develop 2. Provide a few examples of organ-specific and systemic autoimmune diseases In 1970, artist Walt Kelly developed a poster promoting Earth Day,...
# Diseases of the Immune System ## Organ Transplantation and Rejection ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain why human leukocyte antigens (HLAs) are important in tissue transplantation 2. Explain the types of grafts possible and their potential for interaction with the ...
# Diseases of the Immune System ## Immunodeficiency ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare the causes of primary and secondary immunodeficiencies 2. Describe treatments for primary and secondary immunodeficiencies Immunodeficiencies are inherited (primary) or acquired (s...
# Diseases of the Immune System ## Cancer Immunobiology and Immunotherapy ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain how the adaptive specific immune response responds to tumors 2. Discuss the risks and benefits of tumor vaccines Cancer involves a loss of the ability of cell...
# Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response ## Introduction Many laboratory tests are designed to confirm a presumptive diagnosis by detecting antibodies specific to a suspected pathogen. Unfortunately, many such tests are time-consuming and expensive. That is now changing, however, with the development of new, mini...
# Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response ## Polyclonal and Monoclonal Antibody Production ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare the method of development, use, and characteristics of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies 2. Explain the nature of antibody cross-reacti...
# Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response ## Detecting Antigen-Antibody Complexes ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe various types of assays used to find antigen-antibody complexes 2. Describe the circumstances under which antigen-antibody complexes precipitate o...
# Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response ## Agglutination Assays ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare direct and indirect agglutination 2. Identify various uses of hemagglutination in the diagnosis of disease 3. Explain how blood types are determined 4. Explain the...
# Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response ## EIAs and ELISAs ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain the differences and similarities between EIA, FEIA, and ELISA 2. Describe the difference and similarities between immunohistochemistry and immunocytochemistry 3. Descri...
# Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response ## Fluorescent Antibody Techniques ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the benefits of immunofluorescent antibody assays in comparison to nonfluorescent assays 2. Compare direct and indirect fluorescent antibody assays 3. ...