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https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/3_d-Block_Elements/Group_05%3A_Transition_Metals/Group_5_Elemental_Properties |
Like the group 4 elements, all group 5 metals are normally found in nature as oxide ores that contain the metals in their highest oxidation state (+5). Because of the lanthanide contraction, the chemistry of Nb and Ta is so similar that these elements are usually found in the same ores. Three-fourths of... | 3,767 | 517 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Book3A_Bioinorganic_Chemistry_(Bertini_et_al.)/06%3A_Electron_Transfer/6.06%3A_Long-range_Electron_Transfer_in_Proteins_(Part_1) |
The electron-transfer reactions that occur within and between proteins typically involve prosthetic groups separated by distances that are often greater than 10 Å. When we consider these distant electron transfers, an explicit expression for the electronic factor is required. In the nonadiabatic limit, ... | 11,639 | 518 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_18%3A_The_Noble_Gases/Z018_Chemistry_of_Argon_(Z18) |
Argon is it is colorless, tasteless and odorless noble gas that is located in Group 18 on the Periodic Table. It was discovered by Henry Cavendish in 1785 and was named Argon, which is derived from the Greek word "argos" meaning inactive. Cavendish formed oxides of nitrogen by passing electric currents ... | 613 | 519 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Housecroft)/06%3A_Structures_and_Energetics_of_Metallic_and_Ionic_solids/6.08%3A_Bonding_in_Metals_and_Semicondoctors/6.8D%3A_Band_Theory_of_Semiconductors |
Band Theory was developed with some help from the knowledge gained during the quantum revolution in science. In 1928, Felix Bloch had the idea to take the quantum theory and apply it to solids. In 1927, Walter Heitler and Fritz London discovered bands- very closely spaced orbitals with not much differen... | 3,112 | 521 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.01%3A_Collision_Theory/6.1.7%3A_The_Collision_Theory |
This page describes the collision theory of reaction rates, concentrating on the key factors that determine whether a particular collision will result in a reaction—in particular, the energy of the collision, and the orientation of the collision. Reactions in which a single species falls apart are simpler becaus... | 4,236 | 522 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/12%3A_Thermodynamic_Processes_and_Thermochemistry/12.1%3A_Systems_States_and_Processes |
Because energy takes many forms, only some of which can be seen or felt, it is defined by its effect on matter. For example, microwave ovens produce energy to cook food, but we cannot see that energy. In contrast, we can see the energy produced by a light bulb when we switch on a lamp. In this section, ... | 11,554 | 523 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/14%3A_Organohalogen_and_Organometallic_Compounds/14.02%3A_Physical_Properties_of_Organohalogen_and_Organometallic_Compounds |
The physical properties of haloalkanes are much as one might expect. Volatility decreases: (a) with increasing molecular weight along a homologous series, (b) with increasing atomic number of the halogen, and (c) with the structure of the alkyl group in the order such that \(<\) \(<\) for isomeric halides.... | 1,562 | 525 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Group/Group_01%3A_Hydrogen_and_the_Alkali_Metals/Z019_Chemistry_of_Potassium_(Z19) |
Potassium is a metal, abbreviated as K on the . In its pure form, potassium has a white-sliver color, but quickly oxidizes upon exposure to air and tarnishing in minutes if it is not stored under oil or grease. Potassium is essential to several aspects of plant, animal, and human life and is thus mine... | 4,244 | 526 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3A_The_Halogens/Z009_Chemistry_of_Fluorine_(Z9) |
In the late 1600's minerals which we now know contain fluorine were used in etching glass. The discovery of the element was prompted by the search for the chemical substance which was able to attack glass (it is HF, a weak acid). The early history of the isolation and work with fluorine and hydrogen flu... | 3,486 | 527 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/09._The_Hydrogen_Atom/Atomic_Theory/Electrons_in_Atoms/Uncertainty_Principle |
In classical physics, studying the behavior of a physical system is often a simple task due to the fact that several physical qualities can be measured simultaneously. However, this possibility is absent in the quantum world. In 1927 the German physicist Werner Heisenberg described such limitations as t... | 9,522 | 528 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_18%3A_The_Noble_Gases/Z002_Chemistry_of_Helium_(Z2) |
Helium is at the top of the (which also contains neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon) and is the least reactive element. Helium has many interesting characteristics, such as making balloons float and raising the pitch of one's voice; these applications are discussed below. Helium is the second most... | 9,152 | 529 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_3%3A_The_States_of_Matter/10%3A_Solids_Liquids_and_Phase_Transitions/10.E%3A_Solids_Liquids_and_Phase_Transitions_(Exercises) |
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If a substance has relatively strong intermolecular forces, a high melting point, and is not easily compressed, will this substance be a solid, liquid, or gas? The substance is a solid because solids have relatively stronger intermolecular forces than liquids or gases. These strong intermolecu... | 17,390 | 530 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/02%3A_Reaction_Rates/2.05%3A_Reaction_Rate/2.5.01%3A_The_Speed_of_a_Chemical_Reaction |
How long does it take for a chemical reaction to occur under a given set of conditions? As with many "simple" questions, no meaningful answer can be given without being more precise. In this case, A reaction is "completed" when it has reached equilibrium — that is, when concentrations of the reactants a... | 1,627 | 532 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/02%3A_Atoms_Molecules_and_Chemical_Reactions/2.12%3A_Formulas_and_Composition/2.12.02%3A_Environment-_Fertilizers_Formulas_and_Ecological_Stoichiometry |
Fertilizers, Formulas and Ecological Stoichiometry When you shop for fertilizers, you will find them labeled according to the "NPK" (nitrogen/phosphorus/potassium) analysis. For example, one fertilizer might be labeled "18-51-20". Deciphering this label requires understanding of chemical formulas. The nitrogen v... | 10,954 | 534 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/25%3A_Amino_Acids_Peptides_and_Proteins/25.13%3A_Biosynthesis_of_Proteins |
One of the most interesting and basic problems connected with the synthesis of proteins in living cells is how the component amino acids are induced to link together in the sequences that are specific for each type of protein. There also is the related problem of how the information as to the amino-acid sequence... | 12,538 | 535 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Quantum_States_of_Atoms_and_Molecules_(Zielinksi_et_al)/09%3A_The_Electronic_States_of_the_Multielectron_Atoms/9.08%3A_Configuration_Interaction |
The best energies obtained at the Hartree-Fock level are still not accurate, because they use an average potential for the electron-electron interactions. Configuration interaction (CI) methods help to overcome this limitation. Because electrons interact and repel each other, their motion in atoms is correlated.... | 2,806 | 537 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bonding/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding/Valence-Shell_Electron-Pair_Repulsion_Models |
The 3-dimensional structure of \(\ce{BF3}\) is different from \(\ce{PF3}\), and this is difficult to comphrend by considering their formulas alone. However, the Lewis dot structures for them are different, and the electron pair in \(\textrm{:PF}_3\) is the reason for its structure being different from \... | 3,873 | 538 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3A_The_Halogens/Z035_Chemistry_of_Bromine_(Z35) |
Bromine is a reddish-brown fuming liquid at room temperature with a very disagreeable chlorine-like smell. In fact its name is derived from the Greek bromos or "stench". It was first isolated in pure form by Balard in 1826. It is the only non-metal that is a liquid at normal room conditions. Bromine on ... | 833 | 539 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/22%3A_Arenes_Electrophilic_Aromatic_Substitution/22.03%3A_Spectral_Properties_of_Arenes |
The presence of a phenyl group in a compound can be ascertained with a fair degree of certainty from its infrared spectrum. For example, in Figure 22-1 we see the infrared spectra of methylbenzene, and of 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-dimethylbenzene. That each spectrum is of a benzene derivative is apparent from certain ... | 8,378 | 541 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Group/Group_01%3A_Hydrogen_and_the_Alkali_Metals/Z087_Chemistry_of_Francium_(Z87) |
Francium is the last of the known alkali metals and does not occur to any significant extent in nature. All known isotopes are radioactive and have short half-lives (22 minutes is the longest). The existence of Francium was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in the 1870's and he presumed it would have chemic... | 747 | 542 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/16%3A_Solubility_and_Precipitation_Equilibria/16.4%3A_The_Effects_of_pH_on_Solubility |
The solubility of many compounds depends strongly on the pH of the solution. For example, the anion in many sparingly soluble salts is the conjugate base of a weak acid that may become protonated in solution. In addition, the solubility of simple binary compounds such as oxides and sulfides, both strong... | 20,141 | 543 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Electronic_Spectroscopy/Metal_to_Ligand_and_Ligand_to_Metal_Charge_Transfer_Bands |
In the field of inorganic chemistry, color is commonly associated with d–d transitions. If this is the case, why is it that some transition metal complexes show intense color in solution, but possess no d electrons? In transition metal complexes a change in electron distribution between the metal and a ... | 9,826 | 544 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/3_d-Block_Elements/Group_04%3A_Transition_Metals/Chemistry_of_Rutherfordium |
In 1964 researchers in the Soviet Union at Dubna announced their discovery of element 104. A similar claim was made by researchers at the University of California at Berkeley. The Soviet scientists claimed to have bombarded a target of Pu-242 with Ne-22, resulting in a nucleus with 104 protons and a mas... | 828 | 545 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Group/Group_01%3A_Hydrogen_and_the_Alkali_Metals/Z037_Chemistry_of_Rubidium_(Z37) |
Rubidium (Latin: rubidius = red) is similar in physical and chemical characteristics to potassium, but much more reactive. It is the seventeenth most abundant element and was discovered by its red spectral emission in 1861 by Bunsen and Kirchhoff. Its melting point is so low you could melt it in your ha... | 668 | 547 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Group/Group_16%3A_The_Oxygen_Family/1Group_16%3A_General_Properties_and_Reactions |
The oxygen family, also called the chalcogens, consists of the elements found in Group 16 of the periodic table and is considered among the main group elements. It consists of the elements , , , tellurium and polonium. These can be found in nature in both free and combined states. are intimately re... | 9,883 | 548 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/14%3A_Chemical_Equilibrium/14.3%3A_Thermodynamic_Description_of_the_Equilibrium_State |
Previously, we saw that it is the of the entropy changes of the system and surroundings that determines whether a process will occur spontaneously. In chemical thermodynamics we prefer to focus our attention on the system rather than the surroundings, and would like to avoid having to calculate the en... | 25,470 | 549 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Thermodynamics_and_Chemical_Equilibrium_(Ellgen)/03%3A_Distributions_Probability_and_Expected_Values/3.03%3A_Some_Important_Properties_of_Events |
If we know the probabilities of the possible outcomes of a trial, we can calculate the probabilities for combinations of outcomes. These calculations are based on two rules, which we call . If we partition the outcomes into exhaustive and mutually exclusive events, the laws of probability also apply to events. ... | 9,437 | 551 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/03%3A_Rate_Laws/3.01%3A_Gas_Phase_Kinetics/3.1.02%3A_Maxwell-Boltzmann_Distributions |
The Maxwell-Boltzmann equation, which forms the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, defines the distribution of speeds for a gas at a certain temperature. From this distribution function, the most probable speed, the average speed, and the root-mean-square speed can be derived. The is used to determ... | 3,876 | 552 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/RO._Reduction_and_Oxidation/RO2._Redox_Reactions |
"Oxidation state" implies a description that can change: a metal can go from one oxidation state to another. For example, a Cu(I) can become a Cu(0). It does so by an electron transfer from one place to another. In the case of Cu(I)/Cu(0), an electron would have to be donated by some other species. A loss of ele... | 8,041 | 553 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/RO._Reduction_and_Oxidation/RO1._Oxidation_State |
Electron transfer is one of the most basic processes that can happen in chemistry. It simply involves the movement of an electron from one atom to another. Many important biological processes rely on electron transfer, as do key industrial transformations used to make valuable products. In biology, for example, ... | 5,092 | 554 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Gases/Gas_Laws/The_Ideal_Gas_Law |
The Ideal Gas Law is very simply expressed: \[ PV=nRT\] from which simpler gas laws such as Boyle's, Charles's, Avogadro's and Amonton's law be derived. When dealing with gas, a famous equation was used to relate all of the factors needed in order to solve a gas problem. This equation is known as the Id... | 9,798 | 555 |
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Elemental iodine is a dark grey solid with a faint metallic luster. When heated at ordinary air pressures it sublimes to a violet gas. The name iodine is taken from the Greek ioeides which means "violet colored". It was discovered in 1811 by Courtois. Commercially iodine is recovered from seaweed and br... | 645 | 557 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Period/Period_3_Elements/Structures_and_Physical_Properties_of_Period_3_Elements |
This page describes the structures of the Period 3 elements from sodium to argon, and shows how these structures can be used to explain the physical properties of the elements. In a moment we shall explain all the ups and downs in this graph. Sodium, magnesium and aluminum are all good conductors of electricit... | 1,832 | 558 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Applications_of_Nuclear_Chemistry/Radiocarbon_Dating%3A_The_Shroud_of_Turin |
The Shroud of Turin is a linen wrapping cloth that appears to possess the image of Jesus Christ. Some people believe this to be the cloth that he was wrapped in following his crucifixion. In 1988, several groups of scientists were allowed samples of the shroud to subject these samples to C dating. The ... | 988 | 560 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/09._The_Hydrogen_Atom/Atomic_Theory/Electrons_in_Atoms/Multi-electron_Atoms |
Electrons with more than one atom, such as Helium (He), and Nitrogen (N), are referred to as multi-electron atoms. Hydrogen is the only atom in the periodic table that has one electron in the orbitals under ground state. We will learn how additional electrons behave and affect a certain atom. Let's revi... | 5,375 | 561 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/15%3A_AcidBase_Equilibria/15.8%3A_Organic_Acids_and_Bases_-_Structure_and_Reactivity |
We have seen that the strengths of acids and bases vary over many orders of magnitude. In this section, we explore some of the structural and electronic factors that control the acidity or basicity of a molecule. In general, the stronger the \(\ce{A–H}\) or \(\ce{B–H^+}\) bond, the less likely the bond ... | 14,283 | 562 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Electronic_Spectroscopy/Electronic_Spectroscopy_Basics/Electromagnetic_Radiation |
This page is a basic introduction to the electromagnetic spectrum sufficient for chemistry students interested in UV-visible absorption spectroscopy. If you are looking for any sort of explanations suitable for physics courses, then I'm afraid this isn't the right place for you. Any wave is essentially just a wa... | 5,038 | 563 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/15%3A_AcidBase_Equilibria/15.2%3A_Properties_of_Acids_and_Bases_in_Aqueous_Solutions |
We now turn our attention to acid–base reactions to see how the concepts of chemical equilibrium and equilibrium constants can deepen our understanding of this kind of chemical behavior. We begin with a qualitative description of acid–base equilibria in terms of the Brønsted–Lowry model and then proceed... | 16,133 | 564 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Electronic_Spectroscopy/Spin-orbit_Coupling/The_Russell_Saunders_Coupling_Scheme |
Electrons in an atom reside in shells characterized by a particular value of n, the Principal Quantum Number. Within each shell an electron can occupy an orbital which is further characterized by an Orbital Quantum Number, \(l\), where \(l\) can take all values in the range: \[l = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... , (n-1),\] trad... | 5,616 | 565 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/10%3A_Alkenes_and_Alkynes_I_-_Ionic_and_Radical_Addition_Reactions/10.03%3A_The_Reactivity_of_Multiple_Carbon-Carbon_Bonds |
In the early days of organic chemistry, alkenes were described as "unsaturated" because, in contrast to the "saturated" alkanes, they were found to react readily with substances such as halogens, hydrogen halides, oxidizing agents, and so on. Therefore, the "chemical affinity" of alkenes was regarded as unsatisf... | 3,025 | 566 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Spectroscopy/Infrared_Spectroscopy/How_an_FTIR_Spectrometer_Operates |
FTIR spectrometers (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer) are widely used in organic synthesis, polymer science, petrochemical engineering, pharmaceutical industry and food analysis. In addition, since FTIR spectrometers can be hyphenated to chromatography, the mechanism of chemical reactions and the... | 12,206 | 567 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Group/Group_01%3A_Hydrogen_and_the_Alkali_Metals/Z001_Chemistry_of_Hydrogen_(Z1) |
Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas that is the most abundant element in the known universe. It is also the lightest (in terms of atomic mass) and the simplest, having only one proton and one electron (and no neutrons in its most common isotope). It is all around us. It is a component of... | 9,200 | 570 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/03%3A_Rate_Laws/3.02%3A_Reaction_Mechanisms/3.2.02%3A_Pre-equilibrium_Approximation |
The pre-equilibrium approximation assumes that the reactants and intermediates of a multi-step reaction exist in dynamic equilibrium. According to the article, reactions involving many steps can be analyzed using approximations. Like the steady state method, the pre-equilibrium approximation method de... | 4,405 | 571 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Phase_Transitions/Clausius-Clapeyron_Equation |
The s of most liquids have similar shapes with the vapor pressure steadily increasing as the temperature increases (Figure \(\Page {1}\)). A good approach is to find a mathematical model for the pressure increase as a function of temperature. Experiments showed that the vapor pressure \(P\) and tempera... | 4,596 | 573 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/06%3A_Bonding_in_Organic_Molecules/6.05%3A_Atomic-Orbital_Models |
Saturated compounds such as the alkanes and their derivatives, which have normal tetrahedral angles for the bonds to carbon, can be formulated readily in terms of atomic orbitals with \(sp^3 \: \sigma\) bonds to carbon. An example is shown in Figure 6-11, which also shows how an atomic-orbital model can be drawn... | 14,642 | 574 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/09._The_Hydrogen_Atom/Atomic_Theory/Electrons_in_Atoms/Electronic_Orbitals |
An atom is composed of a nucleus containing neutrons and protons with electrons dispersed throughout the remaining space. Electrons, however, are not simply floating within the atom; instead, they are fixed within electronic orbitals. Electronic orbitals are regions within the atom in which electrons ha... | 6,524 | 577 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Modes/Symmetry_Adapted_Linear_Combinations |
The construction of linear combinations of the basis of atomic movements allows the vibrations belonging to irreducible representations to be investigated. The wavefunction of these symmetry equivalent orbitals is referred to as , or SALCs. SALCs (Symmetry Adapted Linear Combinations) are the linear co... | 15,543 | 580 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Map%3A_Physical_Chemistry_for_the_Biosciences_(Chang)/11%3A_Quantum_Mechanics_and_Atomic_Structure/11.11%3A_Many-Electron_Atoms_and_the_Periodic_Table |
Quantum mechanics can account for the periodic structure of the elements, by any measure a major conceptual accomplishment for any theory. Although accurate computations become increasingly more challenging as the number of electrons increases, the general patterns of atomic behavior can be predicted wi... | 21,460 | 583 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Colligative_Properties/Osmotic_Pressure |
Semipermiable membranes do no H O Osmosis is the diffusion of a fluid through a semipermeable membrane. When a semipermeable membrane (animal bladders, skins of fruits and vegetables) separates a solution from a solvent, then only solvent molecules are able to pass through the membrane. The osmotic pres... | 1,457 | 584 |
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Prof. Linus Pauling (1931) first developed the Hybridization state theory in order to explain the structure of molecules such as methane (CH ). This concept was developed for simple chemical systems but this one applied more widely later on and from today’s point of view it is considered an operative em... | 2,870 | 585 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bonding/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding/Chemical_Bonds/Chemical_Bonding_-_A_Review |
Hint: Number of electrons around N = 1 + (6/2) Evaluate the formal charge of any atom of any dot structure.
What is the formal charge for the resonance structure having the odd electron on the oxygen atom? Four resonance structures have been given, and all indicate a bond order of 1.5 for \(\ce{[... | 786 | 586 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/21%3A_Resonance_and_Molecular_Orbital_Methods/21.04%3A_The_Benzene_Problem |
We already have alluded to the difficulties encountered in the interpretation of the structure of benzene in and . Our task here is to see what new insight the VB and MO treatments can give us about benzene, but first we will indicate those properties of benzene that are difficult to explain on the basis of s... | 12,441 | 587 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Group/Group_01%3A_Hydrogen_and_the_Alkali_Metals/Z003_Chemistry_of_Lithium_(Z3) |
is a rare element found primarily in molten rock and saltwater in very small amounts. It is understood to be non-vital in human biological processes, although it is used in many drug treatments due to its positive effects on the human brain. Because of its reactive properties, humans have utilized lith... | 5,253 | 589 |
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Entropy is related to the number of microstates a collection of particles can occupy. As both the molecular mass and molecular structure of the particles will affect the number of available microstates, they also affect the entropy of the collection of particles. From quantum theory, we know that increa... | 905 | 592 |
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Prior to the early 1920's, chemists doubted the existence of molecules having molecular weights greater than a few thousand. This limiting view was challenged by , a German chemist with experience in studying natural compounds such as rubber and cellulose. In contrast to the prevailing rationalization ... | 1,123 | 593 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Exercises%3A_Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry/Data-Driven_Exercises/Statistical_analyses_of_flash_point_and_boiling_point_data_for_organic_compounds |
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) provides vast fire safety information including the four-color diamond used on labels to indicate the hazard level of a chemical; see Figure 1. NFPA Health, Flammability, and Reactivity hazards are rated from 0 (none) to 4 (extreme). The Health rating is in the blu... | 4,993 | 594 |
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So far in our molecular orbital descriptions we have not dealt with polyatomic systems with multiple bonds. To do so, we can use an approach in which we describe σ bonding using localized electron-pair bonds formed by hybrid atomic orbitals, and π bonding using molecular orbitals formed by unhybridized atomic ... | 15,127 | 595 |
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There are alternative ways to add hydrogen to a multiple bond besides the catalytic methods described in the previous sections. The most useful of these are homogeneous reactions utilizing diimide, \(\ce{HN=NH}\), and diborane, \(\ce{B_2H_6}\). The behavior and reactivity of diimide can be understood best by con... | 2,374 | 596 |
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are containing one or more in a . The solvent that makes up most of the solution, whereas a solute is the substance that is dissolved inside the solvent. Concentrations are often expressed in terms of relative unites (e.g. percentages) with three different types of percentage concentrations common... | 3,955 | 597 |
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Technetium has the distinction of being the first synthetically produced element. It was the last of the six elements predicted by Mendeleev to be discovered (in 1937 by Segrè and Perrier). Trace amounts were found in a sample of molybdenum that had been bombarded with deuterons in a cyclotron. All know... | 928 | 598 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Physical_Chemistry_(LibreTexts)/28%3A_Chemical_Kinetics_I_-_Rate_Laws/28.08%3A_Transition-State_Theory_Can_Be_Used_to_Estimate_Reaction_Rate_Constants |
In Figure 28.8.1
, the point at which we evaluate or measure \(E_a\) serves as a dividing line (also called a ) between reactants and products. At this point, we do not have \(\text{A} + \text{B}\), and we do not have \(\text{C}\). Rather, what we have is an activated complex of some kind called a be... | 8,002 | 599 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Book3A_Bioinorganic_Chemistry_(Bertini_et_al.)/04%3A_Biological_and_Synthetic_Dioxygen_Carriers/4.12%3A_Other_Ligands_for_Biological_Oxygen_Carriers |
As noted above, a variety of other \(\alpha\)-donor or \(\pi\)-acceptor ligands will bind to the active sites of biological oxygen carriers. As documented in Table 4.2, carbon monoxide (CO) generally binds more strongly to hemoglobin than does dioxygen, hence causing carbon-monoxide poisoning. In additi... | 4,241 | 600 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bonding/Molecular_Orbital_Theory/MO._Molecular_Orbitals/MO7._Experimental_Evidence |
The molecular orbital picture of dioxygen differs from the Lewis picture. Both models predict an oxygen-oxygen double bond, but one model suggests unpaired electrons whereas the other indicates an electron-paired system. Often, there is experimental evidence available to check the reliability of predictions abou... | 4,883 | 604 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/10%3A_Multi-electron_Atoms/Multi-Electron_Atoms/Penetration_and_Shielding |
Penetration and shielding are two underlying principles in determining the physical and chemical properties of elements. We can predict basic properties of elements by using shielding and penetration characteristics to assess basic trends. Electrons are negatively charged and are pulled pretty close to ... | 7,325 | 606 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Alkenes/Reactivity_of_Alkenes/Stereoselectivity_in_Addition_Reactions_to_Double_Bonds/Addition_Reactions_Initiated_by_Electrophilic_Halogen |
The halogens chlorine and bromine add rapidly to a wide variety of alkenes without inducing the kinds of structural rearrangements noted for strong acids (first example below). The stereoselectivity of these additions is strongly , as shown in many of the following examples. An important principle should be res... | 3,689 | 607 |
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This theory was discovered due to Arrhenius's theory having deficiencies. Arrhenius's theory states that ions exist in a solid substance and dissociated from each other once the solid dissolves. Arhennius's theory did not take into account the fact that strong electrolytes are not as great as he origina... | 1,457 | 608 |
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The composition of relatively complex mixtures of metal ions can be determined using qualitative analysis , a procedure for discovering the of metal ions present in the mixture (rather than quantitative information about their amounts). The procedure used to separate and identify more than 20 common metal cati... | 5,507 | 609 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/DeVoes_Thermodynamics_and_Chemistry/11%3A_Reactions_and_Other_Chemical_Processes/11.09%3A_Effects_of_Temperature_and_Pressure_on_Equilibrium_Position |
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The goal of equilibrium statistical mechanics is to calculate the diagonal elements of \(\rho_{e q}\) so we can evaluate average observables \(\langle A\rangle=\operatorname{Tr}\left\{A \rho_{e q}\right\}=A\) that give us fundamental relations or equations of state. Just as thermodynamics has its potent... | 14,694 | 611 |
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We have seen how the uncertainty principle relates the attainable line widths in different kinds of spectroscopy to the lifetimes of the states - the the lifetime, the the spread in energy of the states and the greater the spectroscopic line width. So far we have associated short lifetimes with excited state... | 3,770 | 612 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/16%3A_Carbonyl_Compounds_I-_Aldehydes_and_Ketones._Addition_Reactions_of_the_Carbonyl_Group/16.03%3A_Physical_Properties |
The polarity of the carbonyl group is manifest in the physical properties of carbonyl compounds. Boiling points for the lower members of a series of aldehydes and ketones are \(50\)-\(80^\text{o}\) than for hydrocarbons of the same molecular weight; this may be seen by comparing the data of Table 16-2 (physica... | 734 | 613 |
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We have seen that the partition function of a system gives us the key to calculate thermodynamic functions like energy or pressure as a moment of the energy distribution. We can extend this formulism to calculate the entropy of a system once its \(Q\) is known. We can start with Boltzmann's (statistical... | 2,214 | 614 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Book3A_Bioinorganic_Chemistry_(Bertini_et_al.)/04%3A_Biological_and_Synthetic_Dioxygen_Carriers/4.09%3A_General_Structural_Features_that_Modulate_Ligand_Activity |
There are many ways in which ligand affinity may be perturbed (Figure 4.25). It is convenient to divide these into two groups, referred to as distal and proximal effects. effects are associated with the stereochemistry of the metalloporphyrinato moiety and the coordination of the axial base, and thus th... | 9,668 | 616 |
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The molar Gibbs free energy of mixing (∆Gmix) for a binary solution is given by: \[\begin{align} ∆G_{mix} &= RT (\chi_1 \ln a_1 + \chi_2 \ln a_2) \\[5pt] &= RT (\chi_1 \ln \gamma_1 \chi_1 + \chi_2 \ln \gamma_2 \chi_2) \\[5pt] &= RT (\chi_1 \ln \gamma_1 + \chi_2 \ln \gamma_2) + RT (\chi_1 \ln \chi_1 + \chi_2 \ln... | 7,574 | 617 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/14%3A_Chemical_Equilibrium/14.7%3A_Reaction_Directions_(Thermodynamic_Explanation) |
We have identified three criteria for whether a given reaction will occur spontaneously: Recall that if \(Q < K\), then the reaction proceeds spontaneously to the right as written, resulting in the net conversion of reactants to products. Conversely, if \(Q > K\), then the reaction proceeds spontaneousl... | 15,251 | 620 |
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The laws of probability apply to events that are independent. If the result of one trial depends on the result of another trial, we may still be able to use the laws of probability. However, to do so, we must know the nature of the interdependence. If the activity associated with event precedes the activity as... | 4,586 | 622 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/DeVoes_Thermodynamics_and_Chemistry/12%3A_Equilibrium_Conditions_in_Multicomponent_Systems/12.02%3A_Solvent_Chemical_Potentials_from_Phase_Equilibria |
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The 1-octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow) is the equilibrium ratio of the concentration of a material in 1-octanol to the concentration of that material in water in an immiscible mixture of 1-octanol and water. The published values of log10 of Kow, i.e. Log(Kow), range from about -4 for saccharides to +10 ... | 2,953 | 624 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/12%3A_Cycloalkanes_Cycloalkenes_and_Cycloalkynes/12.03%3A_Conformations_of_Cycloalkanes |
The equilibria (relative stabilities) and equilibration (rate of interconversion) of the rotational conformations of ethane and butane were discussed in Section 5-2. If you review this material, it will be clear that forming a ring from a hydrocarbon chain will greatly reduce the number of possible staggered and... | 14,175 | 625 |
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We can make the same argument for the heat along C. If we do the three processes A and B+C only to a tiny extent we can write: And now we can integrate from \(V_1\) to \(V_2\) over the reversible adiabatic work along B and from \(T_1\) to \(T_2\) for the reversible isochoric heat along C. To separate th... | 2,719 | 626 |
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Reaction enthalpies are important, but difficult to tabulate. However, because enthalpy is a state function, it is possible to use to simplify the tabulation of reaction enthalpies. Hess’ Law is based on the addition of reactions. By knowing the reaction enthalpy for constituent reactions, the enthalp... | 8,645 | 627 |
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A characteristic and synthetically important reaction of ethyne and 1-alkynes is salt (“acetylide”) formation with very strong bases. In such reactions the alkynes behaves as an acids in the sense that they give up protons to suitably strong bases: Water is too weak a base to accept protons from alkynes; consequ... | 6,358 | 628 |
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Discovered in 1803 by William Wollaston and named after the recently discovered asteroid Pallas, palladium is a silvery-white, soft metal similar to platinum. It is a rare metal (only about 1 part per million in the earth) but occurs commonly along with copper, silver and gold. Palladium is part of the ... | 1,471 | 629 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/20%3A_Carbohydrates/20.11%3A_The_Generation_of_Energy_from_Carbohydrate_Metabolism |
We will consider here the reverse process of photosynthesis, namely how carbohydrates, especially glucose, are converted to energy by being broken down into carbon dioxide and water. A general summary of the several stages involved is shown in Figure 20-8. Initially, the storage fuels or foodstuffs (fats, carboh... | 10,736 | 630 |
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A formal charge (FC) is the charge assigned to an atom in a molecule, assuming that electrons in all chemical bonds are shared equally between atoms, regardless of relative electronegativity. When determining the best Lewis structure (or predominant resonance structure) for a molecule, the structure is chosen su... | 3,105 | 631 |
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Krypton is one of the six Noble Gas elements ( ), which are widely known for their relative "inertness" and difficulty in forming chemical compounds with any other elements, due to these elements having full valence shells. Contrary to original thinking, however, Krypton has been made to react with the ... | 3,743 | 632 |
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Ruthenium is a rare metal (less than 0.01 parts per million in the earth's crust). It is generally described as gray-white, hard and brittle. At room temperature it is resistant to virtually all acids. It's high melting point and brittle nature make casting difficult. Its chief commercial use is as a ha... | 1,521 | 633 |
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You learned that the integrated rate law for each common type of reaction (zeroth, first, or second order in a single reactant) can be plotted as a straight line. Using these plots offers an alternative to the methods described for showing how reactant concentration changes with time and determining reaction ord... | 4,944 | 634 |
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Named for the mineral zircon in which it can be found, zirconium was discovered in 1789 by Klaproth and eventually isolated in 1824 by Berzelius. The metal reacts with oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere to form a protective coating that inhibits further corrosion. It is resistant to weak acids and ev... | 674 | 635 |
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Lewis’ octet theory correctly predicts formulas for nearly all ionic compounds and accounts for most covalent bonding schemes for biologically important molecules. But the ones that are exceptions are among the most biologically interesting compounds. Lewis’ theory concentrates on resemblances to noble-gas val... | 6,836 | 636 |
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The early literature concerning the addition of hydrogen bromide to unsymmetrical alkenes at best is confused. Sometimes the same alkene was reported to give addition both according to, and in opposition to, the principles discussed for electrophilic ionic addition ( ). Much of the uncertainty on the addition of... | 4,718 | 637 |
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An electrolyte solution is a solution that generally contains ions, atoms or molecules that have lost or gained electrons, and is electrically conductive. For this reason they are often called ionic solutions, however there are some cases where the electrolytes are not ions. For this discussion we will ... | 5,484 | 638 |
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Secondary structure refers to the shape of a folding protein due exclusively to hydrogen bonding between its backbone amide and carbonyl groups. Secondary structure does not include bonding between the R-groups of amino acids, hydrophobic interactions, or other interactions associated with tertiary stru... | 817 | 639 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_General_Chemistry%3A_Principles_Patterns_and_Applications_(Averill)/14%3A_Chemical_Kinetics/14.05%3A_Using_Graphs_to_Determine_Rate_Laws_Rate_Constants_and_Reaction_Orders |
In , you learned that the integrated rate law for each common type of reaction (zeroth, first, or second order in a single reactant) can be plotted as a straight line. Using these plots offers an alternative to the methods described for showing how reactant concentration changes with time and determining reacti... | 6,599 | 640 |
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Tartaric acid (TA) is a byproduct of wine production. This organic acid and its salts are used in foods such as fruit jellies, preserves, jams, baked goods, and confections. TA is hardly metabolized and degraded by yeast and spoilage bacteria providing microbiological stability to foods that contain it. In addit... | 3,131 | 641 |
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The dependence of the extensive properties of a system (\(V\), \(E\), \(H\), \(S\), \(G\), etc.) on its composition is given by what are called . For a general extensive property \(F\) the partial molar value with respect to component \(i\) is given by \[ \bar{F}_i = \left( \dfrac{\partial F}{\partial n_i} \ri... | 2,661 | 642 |
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Many of the physical properties of solutions differ significantly from those of the pure substances discussed in earlier chapters, and these differences have important consequences. For example, the limited temperature range of liquid water (0°C–100°C) severely limits its use. Aqueous solutions have bot... | 18,010 | 643 |
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We have examined the idea of amino acid , where different foods in the diet supply the correct balance of amino acids to construct Human protein, in another section. Human proteins require stoichiometric amounts of about ten "essential" amino acids, so if only one is missing, the protein cannot be synthesized, ... | 15,861 | 644 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Gases/Gas_Laws/Avogadro's_Law |
Discovering that the volume of a gas was directly proportional to the number of particles it contained was crucial in establishing the formulas for simple molecules at a time (around 1811) when the distinction between atoms and molecules was not clearly understood. In particular, the existence of diatom... | 1,282 | 645 |
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Independently discovered in 1735 by Antonio de Ulloa and in 1741 by Charles Wood, platinum is named from the Spanish platina or "silver". The metal is classified as precious owing to its scarcity and commercial demand. It is very heavy and silvery white and is used in laboratory instruments, jewelry, me... | 966 | 646 |
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